October/November 2000 Article 1 Article 2

Work Stress and Alcohol Use Michael R. Frone, Ph.D. University at Buffalo’s Research Institute on Addictions Abstracted from Alcohol Research & Health 23, 284-291, 1999. Employees who drink heavily or abuse alcohol can undermine a workforce’s overall health and productivity. Michael R. Frone, Ph.D. recently took a look at the scientific literature on employee drinking and ways of preventing problem drinking and drew some conclusions of his own. Some Background Previous research in the area of employee drinking has encompassed two main themes. The first theme is that the cause of employee drinking is external to, or independent of, the workplace, such as when an employee might have a family history of alcohol abuse that increases vulnerability to a drinking problem, or that they may have friends or a social network that condones heavy drinking. The second theme is that the cause of employee drinking results from, at least in part, aspects of the work environment itself. An employee whose work is independent and achieved without outside supervision may have a greater opportunity to arrive on the job under the influence of alcohol or to drink while at their job. Work settings where alcohol is physically or socially available may also promote alcohol use. In some work environments, alcohol can be obtained for consumption on the job, during breaks, or at work-related events. An employee who experiences a high level of boredom at work, is unable to participate in decision making, or has interpersonal conflict with supervisors and coworkers, may also drink in response to that work environment. Work Stressors Frone reviewed studies of work stressors or potentially aversive work conditions that affected employees’ use of alcohol. Common work stressors are identified as dangerous work conditions; noxious physical work environments (e.g., conditions that are too hot or cold, noisy or dirty); interpersonal conflict with supervisors or coworkers; heavy workloads; unfair treatment regarding pay, benefits, and promotions; and lack of job security (e.g., threats of layoffs). He found that for some people, alcohol use represents a means of regulating negative emotions (e.g., depression, anxiety, or anger) or thoughts that result from the work environment. He also noted that there are individual differences in how people value work. Specifically, people whose role at work is directly linked to their self-esteem or personal worth may react more negatively to job stressors, and consequently be more likely to abuse alcohol than individuals who derive their self-esteem from non-work sources. Ultimately, individual differences in the psychological importance of work may be important in explaining when work stressors will be related to alcohol use. Another type of work-related stressor occurs when the demands of work begin to interfere with other life roles. For example, conflict between work and family roles are a “between-role stressor” that can only occur with employed people. Work-Family Conflict Work-family conflict represents the extent to which demands and responsibilities in one role (work or home) interfere with meeting the demands and responsibilities in the other role (home or work). Some people who have both work and family roles experience no conflict between the two, whereas other people experience a high degree of conflict between them. Because work-family conflict by definition involves encountering difficulties integrating work and family life, it is a stressor that may cause increased alcohol consumption. Therefore, the importance of measuring work-family conflict cannot be overstated. Frone and colleagues found that work-family conflict was positively related to heavy drinking among men and women in two community samples of employed parents. In a longitudinal study, Frone and colleagues reported that work-family conflict assessed in 1989 predicted heavy drinking in 1993 among both men and women. Frone also reported that work-family conflict was positively related to a diagnosis of alcohol or drug (AOD) dependence, but not AOD abuse, among men and women. Frone also attempted to address why work-family conflict is related to alcohol use, and why some people who experience work-family conflict develop alcohol problems whereas others who experience work-family conflict do not develop alcohol problems. In addressing the first question, Frone and colleagues found that work-family conflict was positively related to both job and family dissatisfaction, which were positively related to general psychological distress (i.e., combined symptoms of depression and anxiety), that was in turn positively related to heavy drinking. In addressing the second question, Frone and colleagues found that work-family conflict was positively related to alcohol problems only among people with strong tension-reduction expectancies (e.g., people who believe that drinking leads to relaxation and alleviates negative emotions). Conclusions Several conclusions can be drawn from recent research on work stress and alcohol use. First, research has expanded to include sources of stress within the work role (i.e., work stressors) as well as sources of stress representing the integration of work and family roles (i.e., work-family conflict). Second, evidence is growing that work stressors and work-family conflicts are related to alcohol use. Finally, research is beginning to move beyond simple studies suggesting that work stressors contribute to alcohol problems by moving toward examination of the more complex questions of why work stressors lead to alcohol use, and why only some people who encounter work stress develop alcohol problems. In future research, Frone suggests the use of daily or weekly diary studies (in which participants record their drinking behaviors and stressors each day) would be especially useful. Because variations in exposure to stressors and drinking behaviors may follow a short-term (daily or weekly) cycle, diary methods are likely to be more sensitive than traditional panel designs, which follow a group of study participants over time but collect data at time points that are separated by several months to several years. Areas for Future Research More attention to types of job stressors and their measurement. More attention to types of alcohol use outcomes including Level of Involvement (i.e., drinking motives, usual consumption, heavy consumption, and alcohol problems or dependence) and Context of Use (i.e., overall consumption and on-the-job consumption). A broader focus on the links between work stressors and alcohol use. Examination of developmental stages, especially the study of employed adolescents and young adults. Longitudinal designs with closely spaced waves of measurement, such as daily diary studies. Clinical Implications It is important to assess sources of stress at work and the extent of work-family conflict to better understand employed clients’ motivation for drinking. Teach more adaptive coping skills, such as relaxation, time management, and prioritization, to replace drinking as a coping strategy. Assessment of work stressors and work-family conflict, and teaching adaptive coping skills, is important for both employed men and women. Michael R. Frone, Ph.D. is a senior research scientist at the Research Institute on Addictions, the State University of New York at Buffalo. His primary area of research is employment. The research described in this article was supported by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism through a Scientist Development Award to Dr. Frone. Article 2

William R. Greiner, President

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